This paper examines the transformation of India's legal landscape during British colonial rule. The transformation signalled a shift from fluid and diverse pre-colonial traditions to rigid codified systems. The fluidity can be ascribed to a complex interplay of religious laws, rulers' wills, local customs, and regional practices. Hindu and Islamic legal traditions coexisted alongside various customary laws, creating a multifaceted legal environment. British administration initiated standardization and codification, to negotiate this maze in order to administer justice in an unfamiliar context. The study explores the motivations behind this transformation, its implementation process, and the lasting impact.

Marriage, divorce, and maintenance laws in India are deeply rooted in the country's pluralistic legal framework, reflecting the diverse religious and cultural traditions. Hindu and Muslim personal laws, governed by distinct statutes and customs, exemplify this plurality. This article explores the legal frameworks governing marriage, divorce, and maintenance in Hindu and Muslim personal laws, highlighting their historical foundations, procedural aspects, and gendered implications. Marriage, as a socially sanctioned union, imposes rights and duties on spouses, influenced by customs, community traditions, and statutory laws. Divorce, historically more prevalent in Islamic traditions, is now legally recognized across religions as a remedy for irreparable marital breakdowns. Maintenance, ensuring the financial sustenance of a spouse post-divorce, varies significantly in its application under Hindu and Muslim laws, reflecting differences in religious doctrines and societal norms. The article also examines gender implications within these legal frameworks, including issues of child marriage, dowry-related violence, polygamy, and transnational marriage abandonment. While constitutional provisions like Article 14 advocate gender equality, the lived realities of women in India often reveal gaps between legal protections and actual experiences of inequality. Despite progressive reforms and feminist advocacy, discriminatory practices persist, especially within personal laws, underscoring the need for continued legal and societal transformation. By analysing marriage, divorce, and maintenance through legal, cultural, and gendered lenses, the study sheds light on the complexities of personal laws and their impact on women's rights and empowerment in India.

French Missionary Dallet (1874) wrote in his book that the thousand character essay has long been utilized both in China and in Korea. It has been used as the textbook for the education of Chinese characters for the children. (Dallet, 1874). The thousand character essay is called in Korea as Tcheonzamun (Han, 1583). If somebody is going to get Korean words from the Chinese characters on Tcheonzamun, nearly all the persons will say “It is ‘Non sense’!” However, recently Kim (2023) insisted that Korean sentences are found on Tcheonzamun poem. It is the apparent object of the present study to find out Korean words on Tcheonzamun poem. However, the real object is to discover if Tcheonzamun was written by Korean language-speaking person(s). There are several methods for Tcheonzamun translation. The first method is through Korean pronunciation of Chinese characters on Tcheonzamun (Kim, 2023). The present study was done on the method of Kim (2023). The range of this work is (Tcheonzamun 417th-432nd). This study is the work on the translation of Tcheonzamum poem of (Tcheonzamun 417th-432nd). The title of this study is ‘My husband! Please say the next thing to the surrounding people "I am very hungry(Gum-deon; 宮殿), and the food(Bab-eul!; 盤欎!) is prepared. How(Nu-ga?; 樓觀?) can I get out of(Bi-ggyeo!; 飛驚!) here without eating?" (Tcheonzamun 417th-432nd)’. <Number in Tcheonzamun. Chinese character (Pronunciation in Korean language). “Modified pronunciation in Korean alphabet.” Modified pronunciation in English alphabet>. 417-420 背(Bae) 邙(Mang) 面(Myeon) 洛(Lag). “뿌(背(Bae)) 머(邙(Mang)) 내(面(Myeon)) 라(洛(Lag))!” “뿌머 내라!” Bbu-meo Nae-la! My husband! The people say to their colleagues the next thing

French Missionary Dallet (1874) wrote in his book that the thousand character essay has been used long time in China. In Korea, the thousand character essay is called as Tcheonzamun (Han, 1583). Dallet (1874) seemed to think that Tcheonzamun is very important also in Korea, and he added tens of Chinese characters on Tcheonzamun in his book. The grammar of Chinese language and that of Korean language is very different. And the translation on Chinese language and that on Korean language must be different. In the present study, deleting method was applied (Kim, 2023). The method is the analyze or the deleting method of Chinese character (Kim, 2023). Generally, the deletion or analyze of Chinese character was established between two different Chinese characters. Sometimes, the deletion was occurred on the same Chinese character. In this case, [] mark was used in order to express the deletion on the same Chinese character. This study is the translation of the Tcheonzamun poem of (Tcheonzamun 417th-432nd). The title of this study is ‘My husband! Do not(冂) stop(艮) loving me(your wife)! (Tcheonzamun 417th-432nd)’. There are two repetitions for each line. It is in order to compare the deleted form and the original form. <Number in Tcheonzamun. Chinese character (Pronunciation shown in Korean language on English alphabet)>. 417-420 背(Bae) 邙(Mang) 面(Myeon) 洛(Lag). 417-420 背(Bae)-[ㅕ-上(ㅕ)]=月. 邙(Mang)-口-巳-[一-丨(一)]=匕. 面(Myeon). 洛(Lag)-夂(巳)-口=水. My husband! In order to put knife(匕) to one’s body(月), at first apply the water(水) to one’s face(面). My husband! In order to do very important attack to somebody, to do the tiny thing to the person is sufficient. 421-424 浮(Bu) 渭(Wi) 據(Geo) 涇(Gyeong). 421-424 浮(Bu)-[氵-小(氵)]-丿=子. 渭(Wi)-氵-田=月. 據(Geo)-彡-[扌-土(扌)]-冖T(田)=丿丶. 涇(Gyeong)-氵-一(丿)-巛(彡)=工. My husband! We, you and me(your wife), have given birth(月) to our children(子). As the parents for the growing(工) of our child(children), we have to endure both our advantage thing(丿) and our poor thing(丶). My husband! Because both of two cases will be occurred definitely! 425-428 宮(Gung) 殿(Zeon) 盤(Ban) 鬱(Ul). 425-428 宮(Gung)-[口-口]=宀. 殿(Zeon)-殳-尸=共. 盤(Ban)-殳-皿-千=冂. 鬱(Ul)-四(皿)-[木-木]-夕(尸)-寸(千)=艮. My husband! Do you want that we, me(your wife) and you, live together(共) well in our home(宀)? My husband! Do not(冂) stop(艮) loving me(your wife)! 429-432 樓(Nu) 觀(Gwan) 飛(Bi) 驚(Gyeong). 429-432 樓(Nu)-[中-中]-木-一=女. 觀(Gwan)-艹-[口-口]-一王-[丨-丨]-[亻-儿(亻)]-二二 =丨. 飛(Bi)-[飞-飞]-[丨-丨]=丿. 驚(Gyeong)-艹-一王-丨(一)-攵(木)-灬(二二)=句. My husband! Do you want that I(your wife) (女) shall live continuously(丨) together with you? My husband! When I(your wife) am able to raise(丿) my voice(句) in our home.

The environmental movement in Taiwan emerged against the backdrop of democratization. Initially, Taiwan's waste management policies relied heavily on incineration and landfilling, with little to no policy framework before the 1980s, leading to waste being discarded indiscriminately. In 1984, the construction of "sanitary landfills" began, marking a shift away from random dumping. However, the 1985 fire at the Neihu garbage mountain—caused by excessive garbage accumulation and subsequent methane ignition—served as a wake-up call for Taiwanese society, highlighting the need for better waste management. Civil society in Taiwan has played a crucial role in shaping waste management policies, successfully reversing government policies from the bottom up. Throughout this interactive process between civil society and the government, one can observe not only the "protest politics" that emerged post-democratization but also the growth of Taiwanese civil society, evolving from NIMBY-driven demonstrations to the pursuit of environmental justice. This paper employs a case study approach to explore how Taiwanese civil society has influenced the evolution of waste management policies, examine its interactions with the government, analyze the process, and assess the characteristics of various actors and the methods used to effect policy changes.

French Missionary Dallet (1874) wrote in his book that the thousand character essay has been utilized both in China and in Korea. In Korea, the thousand character essay is called as Tcheonzamun (Han, 1583). Dallet (1874) introduced the Tcheonzamun book into the Western World. It is firmly believed that Tcheonzamun was created by Chinese people, and the translation was also carried out on Chinese grammar (Han, 1583). However, several researchers tried to translate Tcheonzamun poem on Korean pronunciation of Chinese character on Tcheonzamun (Kim, 2023) and on the meaning of Chinese character on Korean grammar (Park et al., 2021). On the present work, the researchers will try to translate the Tcheonzamun poem on the method of Park et al., (2021). The range of this study is sixteen Chinese characters of (Tcheonzamun 081st-096th). The title of this study is ‘My husband! We like the joy, the peace and the love! (有虞陶唐) (Tcheonzamun 081st-096th)’ <Number in Tcheonzamun. Chinese character (Pronunciation shown in Korean language on English alphabet)>. 081-084 始(Si) 制(Ze) 文(Mun) 字(Za). My husband! Do you want(文) our(you and me) family work(字) well? My husband! Do you want me(your wife) to do(始) as you want(制)? No, it is not good both for yourself and for myself! 085-088 乃(Nae) 服(Bog) 衣(I) 裳(Sang). My husband! Do you want that I(your wife) have a favorable feeling(裳) for you(衣)? It is the essential thing that I(myself) will get a good affection for you! But it is not forced by yourself. My husband! It is naturally(服) done by myself(your wife)(乃)! 089-092 推(Tchu) 位(Wi) 讓(Yang) 國(Kug). My husband! Do you want to give your post(推位) to your son or to your daughter? My husband! It is the first thing which you must do for your family. Please tell your daughter or your son how you have a good relation with your neighbors(讓國)! 093-096 有(Yu) 虞(Wu) 陶(Do) 唐(Dang). My husband! We like the joy, the peace and the love! (有虞陶唐).

French Missionary Dallet (1874) wrote in his book that there are many common things between Chinese culture and Korean culture, for example, the two countries have used the thousand character essay as the tool for teaching their children for Chinese character. The thousand character essay is called in Korea as Tcheonzamun (Han, 1583). The grammar between Korean language and Chinese language is distinctively different, and the translation on the language must be different. Recently, some of the translation of Tcheonzamun was made both on Korean pronunciation (Kim, 2023) and through the meaning of Chinese characters on Korean grammar (Park et al., 2021). The thousand character essay is called as Tcheonzamun (千字文) in Korea (Han, 1583). The meaning of Tcheonzamun (千字文) is the thousand(千) character(字) essay(文). There are several methods for Tcheonzamun translation (Park et al., 2021; Kim, 2023). The thousand character essay is called in Korea as Tcheonzamun (Han, 1583). This study concerns the translation of the Tcheonzamun poem of (Tcheonzamun 385th-400th). The title of this study is ‘The Rosario of my father Ilsoo Joseph (Tcheonzamun 385th-400th)’. <Number in Tcheonzamun (the thousand character essay). Chinese character (Pronunciation shown in Korean language on English alphabet)>. 385-388 性(Seong) 靜(Zeong) 情(Zeong) 逸((il). My husband! When there is no stress from the outside, for example, from other persons, the sentiment(情) of the person will be comfortable(逸). My husband! Then, the inner part, in other words, the spirit(性) of the person will be calm(靜)! 389-392 心(Sim) 動(Dong) 神(Sin) 疲(Pi). My husband! No, it is not so! It is opposite! When the spirit(神) of the person will be hurt(疲), the heart(心) of the person will be tired(動) soon. The author thinks that the spirit is more important than the sentiment. 393-396 守(Su) 眞(Zin) 志(Zi) 滿(Man). My husband! In order to escape from your pitiful condition described above, what is the good solution? Please keep your opinion(志) strictly! And, your thought will be full(滿) of your mind! My husband! Then, you can maintain(守) your original condition healthily(眞)! 397-400 逐(Tchug) 物(Mul) 意(Eui) 移(i). My husband! If you change(移) often your decision(意), you will think the fortune(物) as the more important thing, then, you will take the thing by your force(逐)… It is ‘The Rosario of my father Ilsoo Joseph’.